Dr. V. Sabariraja Head, Department of English, SNMV College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore, sabari_lit@yahoo.co.in Abstract: The educational landscape has shifted dramatically in the twenty-first century, and the concepts of teaching and learning have taken on a new significance. The majority of professors have eschewed traditional techniques of instruction in favour of more contemporary ones. This trend can be seen in the field of English language instruction as well. Teachers have utilized a range of strategies and techniques to guarantee that students learning English as a second language also understand the content being taught. In this aspect, teachers are passionate about incorporating new technologies into their classes. Both teachers and students have employed mobile devices in the classroom to ensure a great learning experience. Due to the increased interest generated by mobile devices, teachers have begun encouraging pupils to bring their mobile devices to class in order to boost participation. The purpose of this study is to examine mobile pedagogy for English language teaching and learning in order to teach English as a second language to students who are learning the language for the first time. Keywords: MALL (Mobile Assisted Language Learning), English Language, Pedagogy. Introduction: MALL is a branch of study that examines the use of mobile technologies in the context of language acquisition. In contrast to traditional classroom instruction, MALL does not require learners to physically sit in a classroom or at a computer to access learning materials. Indeed, MALL is a viable option where time and location-related impediments to language acquisition. This study will seek to answer these questions by examining a variety of mobile learning applications and case studies from a variety of industries. In this instance, the benefits of mobile technology have been attempted to be highlighted. The following defines English as a second language: The article examined the following aspects of mobile-based language learning: vocabulary, listening comprehension, grammar, phonetics, and reading comprehension sections of this article are discussed. Wireless communication technology is not an outlier in a world where emergent technologyenabled gadgets are rapidly proliferating, and wireless communication technology is no 3241 | Dr. V. Sabariraja English Language Teaching And Learning: A Case Study On Mobile Pedagogy For Second Language Learners exception. As high-capacity mobile phones permeate more and more facets of human life, it is anticipated that this wireless computing device will soon be available in every urban and rural area in every country. As a result of broad availability of such a low-cost and intelligent technology, the landscape of e-learning has fundamentally changed in a variety of ways. Mobile learning, according to some, is the next phase of electronic learning. Mobile devices are not intended to replace traditional learning devices; rather, they serve as an extension for learning in a new environment with new capabilities, however not all learning content and this environment are available on mobile devices. According to research, busy people are more inclined to use portable devices to learn new skills than to spend time to traditional classroom-based courses. Numerous factors influence the adoption of mobile devices in educational settings. Physical characteristics of the phone, such as its size and weight, input and output capabilities, such as keypad vs. touchpad and screen size, as well as audio capabilities, should all be examined in this context. When evaluating the output quality of mobile-based tasks, it is critical to evaluate the learner's skills, prior knowledge, and experience with mobile devices for learning, as well as the learner's attitude toward mobile-based learning. The purpose of this study is to determine the most effective method of learning via mobile technologies, specifically the transition from teacher-led to student-led learning via mobile technologies (m-learning). The potential for second language acquisition in a mobile setting is demonstrated, and several examples of mobile-based language learning are offered to demonstrate the concept. This essay has sought to demonstrate the benefits of using mobile phones when studying English as a second language. This article examines the following aspects of mobile-based language acquisition: vocabulary, hearing comprehension, grammar, phonetics, and reading comprehension (as well as others). The following activities are permissible on mobile devices. Mobile learning is characterised by the possibility of spontaneous, informal, customised, and omnipresent learning. When individuals lack free time as a result of working longer hours, this form of learning is accelerated even more. Mobile Learning: Pros and Cons in Language Learning Mobile learning, often known as m-learning, enables learners to learn while on the bus, walking outside, or working at their part-time jobs at the office or elsewhere. In actuality, students can learn from any location and at any time. Two of the most critical qualities of mobile devices are their portability and connectivity. For connectivity, the mobile system must be capable of connecting to and communicating with the learning website via the device's wireless network, enabling students to access learning materials from anywhere, at any time, via capabilities such as short messaging service (SMS) and mobile e-mail. 3242 | Dr. V. Sabariraja English Language Teaching And Learning: A Case Study On Mobile Pedagogy For Second Language Learners If learners' mobile devices are portable, they can move them about and carry learning resources with them. According to Klopfer and his colleagues, mobile devices exhibit the following characteristics: 1) portability: because to their small size and weight, mobile devices may be taken to multiple locations; 2) social interactivity: mobile devices enable learners to exchange data and collaborate with one another. 3) context sensitivity: data on mobile devices can be gathered and acted upon in ways that are contextually relevant to the user's present location and time; 4) Connectivity: Mobile devices can be connected to other devices, data collection devices, or a shared network via the establishment of a shared network. 5) Customization: The activities platform can be customised to match the individual demands of each learner. Due to the market's ubiquitous impact, the popularity of the mobile phone has increased, which satisfies teachers' desire to supply tools and software for students in educational settings. Additionally, as compared to other wireless devices such as laptop computers, mobile phones are comparatively inexpensive, with the majority of handsets including an Internet browser. With such low-cost devices accessible to even the poorest communities and equipped with e-mail or SMS capabilities, it is now possible to transfer information between teachers and pupils without encountering any obstacles. While offering educational services via mobile devices offers a number of advantages, it also has a number of disadvantages, including a small screen, difficulty reading on a small screen, limited data storage and multimedia capabilities, and so on. Numerous smartphones on the market are not designed for educational use. In other words, it is challenging for pupils to apply them to the assignments set by teachers and successfully finish them. This is partly due to the early design of such devices and partly to the fact that such fully developed mobile phones are not yet available on the market. However, due to their high purchase costs, the devices that are optimal for specific learning tasks are out of reach for the bulk of learners. As a result, teachers should be aware of the tools their students utilise and then select or alter resources to be compatible with those technologies. Stockwell discovered in an experiment that learners believed activities took too long to complete on their mobile devices, and hence preferred to do their assigned duties on their home computers. Several learners claimed from the start of the experiment that they did not intend to use their mobile phones to complete their tasks due to the high cost of Internet access, the small screen size, and the lack of a keypad [14]. 3243 | Dr. V. Sabariraja English Language Teaching And Learning: A Case Study On Mobile Pedagogy For Second Language Learners Mobile Learning: Real-time Examples Wireless communication technology is utilised in a range of businesses, including GPS navigation, remote monitoring, and the study of a variety of subjects, including language abilities. Mobile learning can occur within or outside of the classroom, depending on the situation. To begin, mobile phones equipped with appropriate software are incredibly beneficial for supporting collaborative learning between small groups of individuals. The fact that this type of learning is conducted on mobile phones has nothing to do with their portability; however, it does provide learners with opportunities for close interaction, conversation, and decision-making with other members of their group as a result of the learning activity's unique design. It is difficult to achieve this level of connection between pupils and their physical mobility when desktop or laptop computers are employed. Mobile learning is more advantageous for activities that occur outside of the classroom. Through the utilisation of such activities, it is feasible to connect learning more directly to real-world investigations. Additionally, learning outside of the classroom using mobile phones maximises the learner's spare time; even students on the road can increase their learning skills [10]. SMS-based learning, another innovation in the use of wireless technologies in education, enables students to get desired text messages to supplement their classroom learning and profit from their teacher's mobile technology experiments [10]. Another area of mobile learning is game-based learning, in which educational materials are designed to be blended with elements of the physical world. When such scenarios arise, mobile technology can be used to facilitate learning activities by acting as a conduit between the real world of information and the visual world of the video game. For instance, TimeLab is a game that delves into the subject of climate change and its implications. Players succeed in acquiring information regarding the launch of possible new environmental legislation using their mobile devices in a number of diverse locales as they progress through the game. They will debate the outcome of the game during the following class period [10]. Mobile learning games can also be used to teach second language abilities such as vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, reading comprehension, and spelling. [11] According to Canny, cell phones are an ideal learning platform because they are widely available and affordable, as well as compact, portable, and wireless. The academics at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) who worked on the MILLEE project focused on fundamental English language abilities and created a series of games that serve as an ESL course's curriculum. They conducted field trials in North India using their mobile-based learning games. They demonstrated that game play can result in significant learning gains and that this method of instruction can improve students' fundamental skills while also indicating the approach's long-term feasibility and scalability (see Microsoft research programme for more information). 3244 | Dr. V. Sabariraja English Language Teaching And Learning: A Case Study On Mobile Pedagogy For Second Language Learners MALL (Mobile Assisted Language Learning) When the first mobile gadgets were introduced to the globe in 1973, no one dreamed they would one day become a vital part of daily life. As soon as mobile phones became an integral part of our daily lives, a strong desire developed to incorporate them into language learning activities. Mobile devices, such as PDAs, phones, and other handheld devices, are now commonly used for a range of purposes, including voice calling, texting, video chatting, listening to audio (Mp3, Mp4, Mpeg), web browsing, and shopping. Apart from these benefits, mobile devices have evolved into educational tools and instruments for language acquisition, and all of their users, whether teachers or students, are becoming accustomed to this environment in order to make education as accessible as possible. Additionally, with the introduction of the internet, open and remote learning became a realistic educational choice for students from all over the world. The popularity of distance learning has resulted in the awareness that a range of mobile devices can be used as a highly effective instructional resource in a relatively short period of time. As a result, some researchers have attempted to transform mobile devices into an invaluable teaching and learning tool. In reality, completing learning tasks using a cell phone was a difficult task [8]. MALL is interested in the use of mobile technologies for language learning. Students are not constantly compelled to acquire a second language in a formal setting. Depending on their location, individuals may be able to learn it on their mobile devices anytime and wherever they desire. As English proficiency is widely seen as a necessity for professional success and a requirement for acquiring an education in many places, developing a more conducive atmosphere for individuals to study is critical. English is one of the educational strategic goals intended at increasing student achievement and facilitating differentiation of learning requirements. Numerous studies and advances in the field of language acquisition are aimed toward the use of wireless technology for a number of reasons. The following sentences aim to emphasise the benefits of using mobile phones when learning English as a second language. Mobile-based language learning covers a broad range of topics, with vocabulary and listening skills being the most prominent, followed by grammar and phonetics, reading comprehension, and so on. • Vocabulary Development: The type of activities concentrating on vocabulary learning via mobile phone differs according to the learners' degree of linguistic ability. It is common practise to send students e-mails or SMS messages to assist them in acquiring new vocabulary based on classroom instruction. In a study done by Kennedy and Levy, participants were given the option of 3245 | Dr. V. Sabariraja English Language Teaching And Learning: A Case Study On Mobile Pedagogy For Second Language Learners getting SMS texts containing familiar phrases in novel situations. On average, nine or ten messages were delivered every week. When examined, the messages were found to be extremely useful for vocabulary acquisition [5]. There are numerous alternate methods for learning vocabulary on mobile devices. Individualized vocabulary practises based on classroom activities might be provided to students. They are encouraged to return them to their instructors once they have completed them on their mobile phones. Students' mobile devices can be used to display pictorial annotations as they learn new vocabulary words, assisting them in grasping the material. In a research conducted by Chen et al., learners were provided with both verbal and graphical annotation for the goal of acquiring English vocabulary. After administering the post-test, the researchers discovered that the graphical annotation aided in the retention of knowledge for learners who lacked verbal ability but possessed a good visual capacity [2]. • Listening Comprehension Listening exercises can be considered of as the first step in the process of foreign language acquisition. With the launch of the second generation of mobile phones, it is now possible to create a mobile multimedia system dedicated to increasing listening capacities through the use of listening exercises. Huang and Sun devised a system comprised of two subsystems. For this project, a multimedia resources website was established that published and maintained video materials, as well as a collection of multimedia English listening exercises on a mobile phone that allowed learners to repeat English listening exercises in a ubiquitous learning environment. They attempted to implement a mobile multimedia English listening practise system based on mobile technology capabilities. This system would allow learners to download multimedia sound contents from mobile devices, register the learning website, order mobile learning courses, and activate the reception of learning courses. According to Huang and Sun [4, a multimedia English listening exercise system on a mobile device can considerably increase a learner's English listening skills]. Another possibility is to establish a platform in which learners listen to an audio text via a voice service on their mobile phones, followed by a listening comprehension quiz based on the text. • Reading Comprehension Reading practises help learners grow their vocabulary, which in turn helps them improve their reading comprehension [2]. Reading activities can be distributed to learners via the installation of a well-designed learning course on their mobile devices or via SMS messaging. In every case, students are given with a reading text feature following completion of the reading exercise. This feature enables students to measure their level of reading comprehension ability. 3246 | Dr. V. Sabariraja English Language Teaching And Learning: A Case Study On Mobile Pedagogy For Second Language Learners Chen and Hsu created PIM, a personalised intelligent mobile learning system, to give learners with English news items matched to their reading ability as assessed by fuzzy item response theory. The method was created to be both effective and adaptable in order to create effective and adaptable learning settings for English. PIM systems would recognise and extract unfamiliar words from individual learners' reading of English news items in order to help them improve their English reading abilities. The participants' reading comprehension and reading abilities improved significantly as a result of the study's experimental results, which revealed that English news reading instruction combined with unfamiliar vocabulary instruction and self-assessing feedback response is extremely effective at improving the participants' reading comprehension and reading abilities [2]. According to the scientists, mobile learning applications that have a reading function accompanied by text announcer pronunciation will be more successful at increasing both reading and listening comprehension simultaneously. Conclusion and future development: With the fast adoption and pervasiveness of mobile technology in all facets of people's life, it is becoming an increasingly crucial tool for learning several dimensions of knowledge. Today, as a result of the clear transition from teacher-led to student-led learning allowed by m-learning, students find technology use to be more successful and enjoyable than it was previously. Indeed, we can provide a more stimulating learning environment for our language learners by communicating via mobile phones. Despite the fact that various studies have been undertaken in the area of MALL technology as a developing topic of study in language acquisition, numerous jobs remain unfinished and a huge amount of information remains unknown. Additionally, it is important to develop the methods for utilising mobile device technology to build a more robust learning environment, which are now lacking. MALL technology can benefit from the strategies that have been used to lower the barriers to CALL since they enable it to grow with less effort and expenditure. Due to the technology restrictions, certain language skills, such as speaking and listening, that are required for mobile-based activities require additional development. Although mobile-based learning, colloquially referred to as m-learning, is riddled with obstacles, it has grown enormously in spite of them to provide a more suitable environment for language acquisition. On the other hand, mobile learning technology is rapidly evolving, transitioning from a textbased approach between teachers and students to a potential multimedia supporting technology. Additionally, podcast lectures and digitised audio comments facilitated online communication between teachers and students by removing time and location constraints [12]. 3247 | Dr. V. Sabariraja English Language Teaching And Learning: A Case Study On Mobile Pedagogy For Second Language Learners Although it takes longer to complete language activities on mobile phones than it does on computers, learners have a greater sense of freedom in terms of time and place, allowing them to use spare time to study a second language regardless of where they are or when they are. Mobile technology displaces learning from the traditional classroom environment, with students having little or no touch with the teacher, despite the fact that the learning process cannot be completed without the guidance and direction of a teacher. As demand for foreign language education increases and people's availability of time for more formal, classroombased, traditional language learning courses falls, the need for busy users to study a foreign language via MALL will definitely increase. For lack of a better term, MALL can be considered the ideal solution to language learning constraints imposed by time and geography. Reference: 1. Chen, N. S. S.-W., Hsieh, & Kinshuk. (2008). “Effects of short-term memory and content representation type on mobile language learning”. Language Learning & Technology, 12(3), pp. 93– 113. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/vol12num3/chenetal.pdf 2. Chen, C. M. & S.-H. Hsu. (2008). “Personalized Intelligent Mobile Learning System for Supporting Effective English Learning”. Educational Technology & Society, 11 (3), pp. 153- 180. 3. Gay, G.; M. Stefanone, M. Grace-Martin, & H. Hembrooke. (2001) “The effects of wireless computing in collaborative learning environments”. International Journal of HumanComputer Interaction, 13(2), pp. 257-276. 4. Huang, C. and P. Sun. (2010) “Using mobile technologies to support mobile multimedia English listening exercises in daily life”. In: The International Conference on Computer and Network Technologies in Education (CNTE 2010), At: http://cnte2010.cs.nhcue.edu.tw/ 5. Kennedy, C. & M. Levy. (2008). “L’italiano al telefonino: Using SMS to support beginners’ language learning”. ReCALL, 20(3), pp. 315–350. 6. Menezes, V. (2011). „Affordances for Language Learning Beyond the Classroom‟, in Benson, P and Reinders, H (eds.) Beyond the Language Classroom. The Theory and Practice of Informal Language Learning and Teaching. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 4, issue 9, 59-71. 7. Miller, J. (2014). The fourth screen. Mediatization and the smartphone. Mobile Media and Communication, 2(2): 209-226. Norris, Lucy and Kukulska-Hulme, Agnes.(2017). Teacher Training and PD in Mobile Park, M., T. Slater (2015). A Typology of Tasks for Mobile-Assisted Language Learning: Recommendations from a Small-Scale Needs Analysis. TESL Canada Journal, 31-93. Park, 8. M., T. Slater (2015). A Typology of Tasks for Mobile-Assisted Language Learning: Recommendations from a Small-Scale Needs Analysis. TESL Canada Journal, 31-93. 3248 | Dr. V. Sabariraja English Language Teaching And Learning: A Case Study On Mobile Pedagogy For Second Language Learners 9. Pellerin, M. (2014). Language Tasks Using Touch Screen and Mobile Technologies: econceptualizing Task-Based CALL for Young Language Learners. Canadian Journal of Learning & Technology, 40(1). Rao, P. S. (2018). Using Mobile Phones in English Language Teaching and Learning Environment. Literary Endeavour, IX, Special issue, September, 2018, pp. 141-151. 10. Rao, P. S. (2019a). The Use of Mobile Phones in the English Classrooms. Academicia: An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 9(1), pp. 6-17.
Sunday, February 26, 2023
A Case Study on L2 Learning Strategies of Middle-Aged Learners (3)
Lyu Liangqiu1 & Xu Zhengqiu1 1 School of Foreign Languages, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China Correspondence: Xu Zhengqiu, School of Foreign Languages, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China. Received: December 16, 2018 Accepted: February 15, 2019 Online Published: February 18, 2019 doi: 10.5539/elt.v12n3p214 URL: https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v12n3p214 Abstract There are many researches about learning strategies of adolescent students and adult learners, but few on learning strategies of middle-aged learners. Through a case study, the paper finds out that middle-aged learners use six classes of learning strategies in a high frequency, especially cognitive strategies, meta-cognitive strategies and social strategies. But compensation strategies, memory strategies and affective strategies were used at a lower frequency. The factors of age and life experience as well as cultural background are of great significance for the choice of using certain learning strategies. The results of the study also show that SILL is of high reliability for the study on learning strategies of Chinese second language learners. Keywords: L2 Learning strategies, middle-aged learners, SILL 1. Introduction In recent years, English learning and teaching have been largely changed with advances in information technology and there is the rise of blended learning which is bound to change the contents, means and concepts of English education, as well as gives students more choices about the contents and methods of learning (Hao). But one of the skills that must be acquired for success in learning is to know how to learn, that is, to master effective learning strategies (Wang). However, the studying scope of learning strategies are limited to adolescent students, while little study on adult learners, not to mention middle-aged learners. The current situation of middle-aged learners in second language acquisition in China is not fully studied. Whether Middle-aged students have sufficient awareness and attention to second language learning strategies, and there is any difficult to habitually apply a series of effective and reasonable strategies to second language learning? This paper tries to answer these questions. Domestic and foreign researchers have made extensive research in this field, and have achieved a large number of research results, among which foreign countries have made some meaningful explorations in this field with Oxford’s SILL as a widely accepted tool (Li & Zhang, 2018). However, most of the studies are conducted in the context of western language learning. So it is necessary to study the use of learning strategies by middle-aged second language learners in Chinese surroundings. A man in his middle age, named Mr. K. for short, takes a full-time academic graduate study of English. It is over 20 years that he has attended a junior college and a school of continuing education. Then after five times of failing in the graduate entrance exam, he succeeded to enter into a graduate school. It is no doubt that Mr. K. has his own living and life style. It is worthy of carefully studying the learning strategies that he used in the past 20 years of learning English. This study, based on the current situation of College English Teaching in China, takes Mr. K. as the research object, and probes into the frequency and causes of utilizing English learning strategies by means of Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (Version for speakers of other Language Learning English). Finally, the paper analyzes and discusses the factors that cause this situation, and recommends some effective ways to solve this problem. 2. Literature Review Language learning strategy is a popular issue in language learning research. The study of learning strategies in second language and foreign language begins in the mid-1970s. Since then, foreign language researchers have aired their unique opinions on the definition of learning strategies to reveal the nature and characteristics of learning strategies from different perspectives. Meanwhile, domestic scholars’ research on English learning strategies has gradually shifted from the macro field to the micro field, characterized by the gradual enlargement elt.ccsenet.org English Language Teaching Vol. 12, No. 3; 2019 215 of the scope and the development of the depth, and the enhance of the level of study (Liu, 2009). However, the distribution of research scope is not balanced (Xu, 2008). English researchers pay more attention to reading, vocabulary and listening learning strategies, but there is a lack of research on learning strategies such as writing and speaking (Sun, 2007). Moreover, the types of research methods are relatively simple. Most of the experimental data came from questionnaires, and experimental studies, with case studies and mixed research methods rarely used. The following is the views that have been representative and influential ones in the field of language learning strategies in recent years, and are widely accepted by people. Learning strategies are approaches or the techniques used by a language learner to describe the specific form of visual behaviors in Stem’s opinion (1983). Cohen (1998) also refers to language learning strategies as the learners’ conscious or semi-conscious behavior and psychological activities. The paper prefers Oxford’s view that language learning strategies are behaviors or actions taken by learners for language learning to be more successful, freer and more enjoyable (1990). Oxford also summarizes the following factors that exert a significant influence on choosing learning strategies in second language acquisition, namely, motivation, attitudes and concept, modes of learning as well as gender. It is generally believed that effective learning strategies can help learners to improve the efficiency of acquiring foreign languages. However, it is indispensable to have a comprehensive and clear understanding of the learners’ use of strategies before instructing learners to use the new learning strategies, so that they can be guided scientifically and effectively. A quick and effective way to understand learning strategies is to scientifically measure students’ learning strategies. The abstraction and complexity of learning strategies brings higher requirements for the compilation and selection of corresponding measurement tools. There is no consensus on the classification of language learning strategies between language researchers with diverse starting points and emphases. For instance, O’Malley and Chamot (1987) divide learning strategies into junior learner’ strategies, intermediate learners’ strategies, and senior learners’ strategies according to the learners’ level, while according to Oxford’s (1990) views, there are two kinds of learning strategies, namely, direct learning strategies and indirect learning strategies, concerning whether strategy directly affects the learning process. Direct strategies can be divided into memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies. Indirect strategies can also be divided into meta-cognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies. The main object of the study of English learning strategies is college students and postgraduate students. The scope of the research is mainly focused on English reading, listening, writing and vocabulary (Liu, 2004). She designed Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) which has been revised several times to become a popular standard measure of language learning strategies and called a valuable diagnostic tool by applied linguist Ellis (1994). The scale adopts the form of a questionnaire of fifty items, measuring six kinds of language learning strategies respectively. The participants, according to their actual situation, evaluate each statement to their own extent on each item on the Likert Scale, the 5-point scale. In the views of Oxford (1990: 199), SILL is confirmed to be an effective and reliable measuring tool through field experiments. And the quantity of the tool is well received by researchers in many linguistic studies around the world. Oxford (1989) said that through the training of learning strategies, students can use learning strategies more consciously, and students can be better at using appropriate strategies. Many researchers believe that learning strategies can be taught, and strategy training is feasible and effective. A large number of studies on learning strategy training have expounded the feasibility of language learning strategy training. Learning strategy training can make language learners master the strategies of good learners, improve language skills and achievements, and then enhance learning motivation and autonomy. So strategy training should be part of a foreign language teaching course. 3. Case Study on L2 Learning Strategies of Middle-Aged Learners Since put forward, case studies are questioned about its scientific significance (Zhang). Many scholars testified the quality of case studies from several perspectives, such as Fei Xiaotong’s approach of classification comparison, Clifford Geertz’s thick description, Michael Burawoy’s extended case method as well as Wang Fuwei’s relational case study and others. The theoretical orientation of case studies can be diversified: either a generalization of the society to which they belong, or a new conceptual insight, or a reconstruction of existing theories or the construction of situational theories (Wang). Therefore, the paper aims to draw a general conclusion about the feature of learning strategies of middle-aged learners by means of a case study. 3.1 The Participant of the Study The participant of the study was a full-time English postgraduate, Mr. K., School of Foreign Languages, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China, who is in his forties and has a high level of English proficiency elt.ccsenet.org English Language Teaching Vol. 12, No. 3; 2019 216 with TEM-8 certificate. It is rare that a man in such age learns English in graduate schools, and his learning experience is also unusual. It is over 20 years that he has attended a junior college and a school of continuing education. Then after five times of failing in the graduate entrance exam, he succeeded in entering into a graduate school. It is no doubt that Mr. K. has his own living and life style. It is worthy of carefully studying the learning strategies that he used in the past 20 years of learning English. This study, based on the current situation of College English Teaching in China, takes Mr. K. as the research object, and probes into the frequency and causes of utilizing English learning strategies of middle-aged learners by means of Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (Version for speakers of other Language Learning English). Finally, the paper analyzes and discusses the factors that cause this situation, and recommends some effective ways for middle-aged learners. 3.2 Research Methods Logically dealing the study, the study utilizes an experimental research design with interviews and a survey to measure the learning strategies of an English postgraduate to figure out the frequency and reasons of using learning strategies. Three questions are involved in the interview: (1) Can you talk about your English learning experience? (2) Do you have any English Learning skills? (3) How did you get through the five fails in the graduate entrance exam? As for choosing the measuring tool for this study, it is not enough to arrange an interview to know the learning strategies and learning experience of the participant. The main reason is that the participant may be not accustomed to express his real ideas openly in a face-to-face interview, which will affect the quality and validity of the data collected to some extent. Therefore, Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Version for speakers of other Language Learning English) is used as a measuring tool for this research (Oxford, 1990: 293). And SILL is the most comprehensive and influential classification model, language learning curator, created by Rebecca L. Oxford. The figures in the Likert scale are analyzed through SPSS 12.0. In addition, conclusions drew from the survey can be related to the personal situation of the participant. 3.3 Research Procedures An appointment was made with the participant for a short interview about the basic situation of age, class, gender, learning style (professional / amateur) and most importantly his English learning experience. Then the participant was asked to fill out the questionnaire of SILL after the interview. Before starting to fill in, the research was introduced in a brief and concise way, and then the participant was arranged to complete the work in 30 minutes. In order to prevent the participant from providing the expected answers, the participant was informed that respondents in the SILL scale were no right or wrong and his answer must be genuine. If the participant had difficulties in understanding a certain problem, he can ask for help. Finally the questionnaire was retracted after the prescribed time. It is worth reminding that a letter was given to the participant asking for approval of the conduct of the study and all the data collected has obtained his permission. 3.4 Data Analysis and Discussion When all the above procedures are over, all the data collected are analyzed as follows in order to figure out the frequency and causes of utilizing English learning strategies. 3.4.1 Analysis of the Data From the Interview When asked about his English learning experience, he mentioned that it was over twenty years ago that he had access to English and had continued to learn English for about six years during junior and senior year of high school when he can deal with the basic vocabulary and grammar of English satisfactorily. Later, he started learning English again by self-learning after work ten years ago. He recited the words in the English-language textbooks for middle and high school and New Concept English as many as he can by reading and copying the words and sentences every day, meanwhile he practiced his listening by means of listening to the self-contained audios when he was exercising, preparing meals or just walking around. Then, his English self-study went on by visiting many English teaching classes and studying the third volume of College English Textbook on his own when he was in a junior college. The learning experience was a challenge for him, but all his persistence and diligent paid off as he passed College English Test, Band 4 and the upgrading examination. And he grasped the opportunity to attend the three-year English course for Bachelor’s degree at School of Continuing Education of Beijing Foreign Studies University, where his English proficiency was improved largely. So he made up his mind to take part in the postgraduate entrance exams for a postgraduate study in English. He failed five times, and finally he succeeded to be an English postgraduate at School of Foreign Languages, North China Electric Power University last year. It is elt.ccsenet.org English Language Teaching Vol. 12, No. 3; 2019 217 clear from his words that he has had an English learning experience of more than 20 years with persistence that is difficult to reach by ordinary people. He was largely self-taught and self-encouraged in English and reached a high level of competence from his learning experience above. As for his learning skills, mastering the knowledge of English language is just like weaving a net. Only by sticking each knot on the net can this dense net be a powerful tool. In addition, his insistence to English owes to his keen interest in English, and a firm faith that a long-term accumulation will eventually achieve a certain degree of success. In short, studying English is a mode of life for him. Finally, he said that attention should be put on how to master knowledge, but not negative emotions. Of cause, he is also troubled by negative emotions, such as anxiety, irritability, and inferiority and others in English learning, especially when he faced five fails continuously in the graduate entrance exam. Encouraging himself to insist on is the most effective way to overcome these negative emotions. And some success he obtained in learning has inspired him that no pain no gain, only hard to be successful. In short, in Mr. K.’s words, it is clear that middle-aged learners are skillful in self-motivation and self-management which are the typical manifestations of cognitive strategies. In addition, middle-aged learners seldom show their emotions and tend to ignore the negative emotions rather than resettle them, which indicates that affective strategies are not their favorite ones. Last but not least, middle-aged learners have the difficulty in taking fully advantage of information technology. Various advanced functions and a large number of shared resources in the Internet not only provide a wider space for students to learn English, but also improve the learning efficiency and quality (Shu). 3.4.2 Analysis of SILL The collected data from SILL are analyzed statistically. The overall mean, standard deviation and median are illustrated in the following table. Table 1. The frequency of learning strategies usage Parts of SILL Overall Mean Standard Deviation Median Part A 3 1.155 3 Part B 4.124 0.773 4 Part C 2 1 2 Part D 4.556 0.831 5 Part E 2.667 0.745 2.5 Part F 4.333 0.735 4.5 Total 3.62 1.263 4 In the table, Part A(Q1-9) shows the memory strategies, Part B(Q10-23) cognitive strategies, Part C(Q24-29) compensation strategies, Part D(Q30-38) meta-cognitive strategies, Part E(Q39-44) affective strategies and Part F(Q45-50) social strategies. The high and low frequency of learning strategies is determined by the averages proposed by Oxford (1990). The averages of high usage frequency are 3.5-5.0, medium frequency of use is 2.5-3.4, and low frequency of use is 1.0-2.4. According to the table of the Frequency of Learning Strategies Usage, in general, the participant uses the six major categories of learning strategies in a high frequency, which has something to do with his high level of English. In spite of this, he also has preferences or dislikes. For instance, compared with other kinds of learning strategies, cognitive strategies, meta-cognitive strategies and social strategies are used frequently with an operating frequency of more than 4, while memory strategies, compensation strategies and affection strategies are used less. The reasons behind this phenomenon will be illustrated in detail later. Firstly, high frequency in cognitive strategies, meta-cognitive strategies and social strategies is closely related to the age of the participant. The participant learns English almost in his adult life by self-learning. He, in his middle age, not only powerful cognitive ability, but also abundant cognitive experience. Learning activity includes a complex cognitive process where the learner’s cognitive experience is the prerequisite (Hu & Zhang, 2006). And a variety of life experience helps middle-aged learners to understand that actions which make sense in one framework may be unintended consequences elsewhere. In addition, middle-aged learners may develop the elt.ccsenet.org English Language Teaching Vol. 12, No. 3; 2019 218 second language as a separate language as a separate system and eventually thinks in the way of second language. At the same time, the influence of the first language on the learning of the second language might be positive and helpful. So middle-aged learners are good at using cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies for self-learning English. Middle-aged learners can organize his learning process, learning content as well as learning time independently and evaluates the learning efficiency, so as to find a learning style that suits them to achieve high learning effectiveness. In addition, with rich social experience, middle-aged learners are aware that language is not only a complex system of grammar or vocabulary, but also a useful and indispensable tool for communication. They pay special attention to communicate with others in English to improve oral skill. Secondly, this table also shows that the participant is less likely to use the learning strategy of emotional interaction. Adult learners’ personality and their cultural background may be the key factors to produce this phenomenon. The cultural background of our country determines that the learners attach importance to face saving and tend to be quiet and introverted. Therefore, it is difficult for middle-aged learners to realize the importance of reducing learning anxiety, motivate themselves and cooperation with others in the learning process. Adult learners in China are not good at motivating themselves and grasping their emotions in learning. According to Oxford (1990), these are important components of emotional strategies. Thirdly, this study also found that the participant has less use of memory strategies. And memory strategies are not very recognized by him as an adult learner in second language learning. Memorizing words and phrases may be a very boring thing for him. Moreover, it is known that human memory is at the peak of memory at the age of 16~ 23, and the rate of memory error is the lowest. It is normal to realize that memory decreases with age. With the increasing of age, the permanent memory will have a greater chance to improve, but the short-term memory will be less than the previous one. As middle-aged learners have a relatively short memory span, memory strategies are out of their best choice. Finally, compensation strategies are the last ones the participant uses, which is consistent with the study of Li Jiongying (2002) and Liu Yaling (2004). Their research shows that Chinese students seldom use compensation strategies or use them frequently. The active use of compensation strategy means that students can make up for the lack of knowledge in understanding and using the target language by means of context and prediction of the purpose of others consciously, so as to overcome the language barriers encountered. As more attention is paid to English learning and English test, the common compensation methods of meaning guessing from context and euphemism expressions are helpful in daily learning and test taking. In brief, middle-aged learners have the ability to actively regulate their language learning processes and communicate with others with the increasing frequency of the use of cognitive strategies, meta-cognitive strategies and also social strategies. However, middle-aged learners may be not very good at managing their emotions and cannot effectively overcome negative emotions and emotional barriers in second language learning, such as anxiety, lack of confidence, fear of failure, etc. Besides, middle-aged learners are subject to be troubled by poor short-term memory. Finally, it is not easy for middle-aged learners to take modern educational technology as part of their learning 4. Conclusion The study shows that middle-aged learners can have a high frequency of using learning strategies in general, which can bring about a high level of English proficiency. But some specific learning strategies are used as a low frequency which may impede the efficiency of second language learning. As for middle-aged learners, it is recommended to gain deep insight into effective strategies and realize the significance of managing emotions. And the teacher’s instruction may be very helpful. In addition, much attention should be paid to compensation strategies which may contribute to successful conversation and also good grades in examinations. Applying images and placing words into context may be efficient methods of enlarging memory capacity. Last but not the least, middle-aged learners are supposed to make the best of modern educational technologies, such as multimedia technology and shared online resources and others. Acknowledgement Supported by Teaching and Learning Reform Project in North China Electric Power University: Curriculum System Construction of Translation Major. Project Number: XM1805212. References Chamot, A. (1987). The learning strategies of ESL students. In Wenden & Rubin (Eds.), Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall. Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London: Longman. elt.ccsenet.org English Language Teaching Vol. 12, No. 3; 2019 219 Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hu, Y., & Zhang, W. M. (2006). College Students’ Ability of Using meta-cognitive Strategies. Foreign Language Education, 3. Hao, Z. J., Zhang, F. C. Xu, J., & Hou, X. X. (2018). The Present Situation and Promotion Strategy of College Students’ Deep Learning in the Network Learning Space—Based on a Survey of Students Majoring in Educational Technology in H University. Digital Education. Li, J. L. (2002). A Case Study on L2 Learning Strategies of Chinese and its Application. Foreign Language Education, 1. Li, W., & Zhang, J. (2018). A Meta-analysis of the Correlations in SILL-based Studies on Chinese University Students’ Language Learning Strategies and English Learning Achievement in China. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Practice, 4. Liu, Y. (2009). A Research Overview on L2 Learning strategies. Journal of Language and Literature, 1. Liu, Y. L. (2004). A Differential Study on English Learning Strategies of College students. Theory and Practice of Education, 3. Oxford, R. (1989). Use of Language Learning Strategies: A Synthesis of Studies with Implications for Teacher Training. System, 17, 235-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(89)90036-5 Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sun, N. (2007). A Case Study on L2 Learning strategies of Adult Learners. Journal of Xi’an international Studies university, 3. Shu, Q. F. (2018). Research on the Application of Modern Educational Technology in English Learning Strategies at Middle School. Education Modernization, 26. Wang, Z. (2018). Construction of College English Learning Strategy System in Applied Colleges Based on Blended Learning. Journal of Higher Education, 22. Wang, F. W. (2012). The Significance and Limitation of Case Study: Based on the perspective of knowledge growth. Sociological Studies. Xu, S. (2008). The Reliability of strategy Inventory for Language learning. Journal of Guizhou Educational Institute (Social science), 4. Zhang, Y. Y., & Zhang, H. D. (2018). Research on the Representativeness of Case Studies. Journal of University of Jinan (Social Science Edition), 1. Copyrights Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Second Language Learning A case study of two second language learners. (2)
Abstract: The purpose of this research is to provide a discussion on the issues raised by TESS teachers (teachers of non-native English language) as a result of the changes in English language. In simple terms, it is a study that focuses on identifying and analyzing learners' mistakes, as well as exploring the reasons behind these errors, using conceptual and theoretical methods regarding second language learning that may be reflected in these errors. According to Miles and Mitchell (2004: 5), second language learning "is the learning of any language, to any level, provided that the second language is learned only at some time after the first language is acquired." In summary, the case study of this research focused on two learners from the same cultural background, but who had different experiences in learning a second language. Some of the learners'faults have been explained in the research according to the social context and a variety of other factors. Introduction Over the past decades, English has become the crucial worldwide language as well as a primary means of international communication. This could be attributed to complex cultural, economic and technological forces. Graddol (1997) states that due to the development of the internet and international trade, the English language is spoken internationally and has spread geographically among all world languages. Additionally, مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 277 the English language is commonly known as a lingua franca, as it is used as a working language among different regions in the European Union, as well as a language of contact throughout the world. South-east Asia is probably a good example of this, where many are non-native English speakers. This is likely to have a profound impact on both English language teaching and on the language itself. Moreover, there are multiple varieties which have developed from the English language, known as ‘world Englishes’. These varieties include standard English in regions such as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, the United States, New Zealand and South Africa, and other local varieties in countries such as Africa, India and the Caribbean. The concept of ‘world Englishes’ applies to many language users who add their own local words and expressions to their discourse. This means that the English language has extended its social, functional and cultural context through these world Englishes. Consequently, English has grown to be an essential rather than optional language, and it has become widely taught throughout the world (Crystal, 1997). This growth of the English language has probably forced professional English teachers to accept either diversity or multiculturalism. Gnutzmann and Intemann (2005) point out that teachers need to teach Standard English as a linguistic model in classes, but they may also need to be flexible with learners in terms of their teaching model. In brief, teachers are not required to promote one form of English over another, but rather, they must respect learners’ needs and take into consideration the contexts and purposes of use which are associated with them. Consequently, “…the widespread use of English language as a language of wider communication will continue to exert pressure towards global uniformity as well as give rise to anxieties about ‘declining’ standards, language change and the loss of geolinguistic diversity. But as English shifts from foreign language to second language status for an increasing number of people, we can also expect to see English develop a larger number of local varieties. These contradictory tensions arise because English has two main functions in the world: it provides a vehicular language for international communication and it forms the basis for constructing cultural identities” (Graddol, 1997: 56). These issues could concern the native speakers of this language, due to the changes which have occurred, or which perhaps will occur, to the English language in the future. The purpose of this assignment is to provide a discussion concerning issues raised by TESOL teachers as a result of changes to the English language. In simple terms, it is a study which focuses on identifying and analysing learners’ mistakes, as well as exploring the reasons which lie behind these mistakes, using the conceptual and theoretical frameworks regarding second language learning which may reflect on these مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 278 errors. According to Myles and Mitchell (2004:5), second language learning “is the learning of any language, to any level, provided only that the learning of the second language takes place sometime later than the acquisition of the first language”. In brief, the case study of this research has concentrated on two learners who are from the same cultural background, but who have different experiences of learning the second language. In the following sections, some of the learners’ errors will be discussed in relation to social context and a variety of other factors Literature Review This section will investigate and give an overview of some of the key concepts and theories on second language acquisition (SLA). The section will begin with the first theory which is behaviourism, followed by discussion of the cognitive theory that appeared as a consequence of the limitations and failure of behaviourism to interpret some of the key concepts of SLA. Subsequent analysis of this theory will in turn indicate further notions provided by theorists about SLA. Lastly, the section will address socio-cultural theory, which emerged to account for and depict why L2 learners are different from each other in terms of SLA. Behaviourism theory Loewen and Reinders (2011) explain that in the 1950s and early 1960s, behaviourism theory was a theory of learning which focused on the relationship between stimulus and response; this type of process is called the formation of habits. In other words, it was thought that children learn their L1 habit in correct forms by copying other people's utterance exactly. In addition to habit formation, there is a process of imitation, which involves taking someone else’s speech and utilising it in one’s own utterance. Building on this idea, Ellis (2005) illustrates that when a mechanised response to a specific stimulus is elicited from learners, then such behaviour can be seen as a habit. Following on from this, Lado (1957, cited in Gass & Selinker, 2013:80) demonstrates that the contrastive analysis hypothesis emerged to enable comparisons to be made between L1 and L2, and thus identify similarities and differences regarding structures. Furthermore, it is claimed that it is essential to clearly define and understand the notion of language transfer. Building on this idea, Towell and Hawkins (1994) state that an awareness of such transfer will make it easier for teachers to concentrate on these different structures and in turn, to apply methods that reinforce changes of habits in L2. In short, L2 learners may make errors as a result of L1 interference. However, the effects of this type of transfer could be eithe r positive or negative. For example, when the features of L1 are similar to L2, this will create positive transfer to the second language, but if the features of L1 are different to the grammatical and phonological system مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 279 of L2, then the transfer will be negative, and as a result, plenty of drilling and teaching are needed in order for it to be acquired. However, this theory is attacked by cognitive theorists. Chomsky (1987, cited in Mitchell & Myles, 2004:33) depicts that according to behaviourism, the input language which is learned by children is perhaps limited, since they may not be aware of the complexity of the language they utter as they have learned it habitually. Interlanguage theory These debatable notions have encouraged researchers to seek for other perspectives in order to account for learners’ errors. For instance, the emergence of error analysis theory assisted in discovering the processes of interlanguage, which may interpret the errors which are produced by learners. This is defined as “the language system that is created by L2 learners as they develop their L2 knowledge towards the target language norms” (Loewen & Reinders, 2011:98). This means that learners learn the target language in a systematic manner. Even if the structure of the target language is different, the learner’s interlanguage is still systematic. Selinker (1972, cited in Loewen & Reinders, 2011:98) states that interlanguage systems can be dynamic rather than static, as they are developed according to how learners gain and reform the input of L2 knowledge. Furthermore, this theory suggests that learners’ mistakes cannot be avoided, but should be interpreted as part of the learning process. Selinker (1972, cited in Wei, 2008:128) goes further, and identifies five processes which lead to the creation of interlanguages; these are communication strategies, learning strategies, over-generalisation, transfer of training, and L1 transfer. Some of these will be examined further in the analysis section in order to describe the errors produced by the L2 learners in the case study. The monitor model hypothesis Another theoretical approach was proposed by Stephen Krashen (1982, cited in Gass & Selinker, 2001). His ‘monitor model’ was affected by Chomsky’s theory of first language acquisition. Krashen’s ideas appeared when there were no satisfactory views about language teaching beyond behaviourism. Thus, Krashen began describing and dividing his model into five hypotheses. The first one is the acquisitionlearning hypothesis, which argues that learners acquire the second language in exactly the same way as children picking up their first language. This might occur with conscious awareness of rule learning but not of language form. The next one is the monitor hypothesis. This type of approach is responsible for evaluating what language learners produce and monitoring if this is correct. Such monitoring ensures learners produce the relevant acquired language. The third one is the natural order hypothesis, which means مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 280 that second language acquisition develops in an expected sequence, in the same way as in first language acquisition. The simplest features of language may not be easily acquired by even advanced second language learners. The fourth is the input hypothesis; this is concerned with how learners are exposed to language which comprises i + 1, in which i refers to the language which has been already acquired and 1 refers to all aspects of language such as words, pronunciation and grammatical rules. The last one is the affective filter hypothesis, which suggests that language might not be acquired effectively, as an ‘affective filter’ may hinder learners from acquiring the language and as a result they will filter out input. Krashen’s model has been criticised by White (1987, cited in Lightbown & Spada, 2006:38), who argues that there is no evidence to support the five hypotheses, nor any way of distinguishing between acquisition and learning by implementing different stages. White suggests that this learning behaviour can be applied in a superficial style but not in a deep way. Consequently, linguists have continued to explore issues concerning SLL since the 1970s. For example, Mitchell and Myles (2004) have raised some questions which need investigation in language-specific terms, firstly with regard to the ways in which first and second language acquisition are similar, and how this notion is relevant to universal grammar. A second question relates to what the similarities are, in cognitive terms, between second language learning processing and other complicated processing tasks. Researchers need to study SSL theories from a variety of perspectives in order to find logical answers. The Universal Grammar The first theory which attempts to provide logical answers is that of universal grammar. Eckman (1996, cited in Gas & Selinker, 2001:168) describes universal grammar (UG) as a special notion which supports the concept that there is innate understanding involved in language learning. However, this notion may itself raise various questions. Gas and Selinker (2001) claim that the UG approach to second language acquisition could imply different perspectives of learnability, and argue that the idea of innate universal language characteristics is promoted by an insistence on methods which may prove that children can be successful in acquiring a language in spite of insufficient input. The evidence presented by Chomsky (1997:167, cited in Gas & Selinker, 2001:169) supports this claim: “The theory of a particular language is its grammar. The theory of languages and the expressions they generate is Universal Grammar (UG); UG is a theory of the initial state of the relevant component of the language faculty”. This theory proposes that language comprises a group of principles and parameters which differ between all natural languages. This concept has been criticised by other theorists. White (1989, cited in Gas & Selinker, 2001:170) illustrates that language input by itself cannot enable young learners to attain what adult learners achieve through complex grammar. Robinson (2001) also argues that language cannot be learned through the مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 281 possession of a specific innate language mechanism as suggested by the universal grammar. Furthermore, based on Chomsky’s criticism, Mitchell and Myles (2004) maintain that language learning is not necessarily about innate knowledge. Rather, it is about the development of communicative competence. The reason for this opposition to UG is perhaps that the concept of innate language is not sufficient to enable language specialists to interpret all aspects of development. In contrast, many second language acquisition researchers argue that the focus needs to be on the learning component, rather than the language dimensions suggested by the universal grammar theory. Cognitive Theory An alternative notion, cognitive theory, emerged in order to emphasise the second language acquisition process; this theory enables linguists to analyse learners’ brain processes and how they acquire current information. It is supported by Lightbown and Spada (2006), who state that cognitive theories are concerned with the learning process within mental faculties. Such theories are not exclusive to SLA, but have emerged from other sectors of psychology and education. From the perspective of second language acquisition, Loewen and Reinders (2011) explain that cognitive theories are of interest as they offer methods of investigating how second language learners acquire and produce language. Therefore, cognitive theories have been used in researching individual differences in order to explore how L2 learners can store and process the knowledge they have acquired in the brain. Information processing is one of the cognitive theories which has emerged to address this issue. In other words, this approach attempts to recognise how information accesses the cognitive system and how language is part of this process. Furthermore, cognitive theorists are divided into two groups. The first group is concerned with processing approaches and the second with constructionist approaches. The processing approach aims to “investigate how second language learners process linguistic information, and how their ability to process the second language develops over time” (Mitchell & Myles, 2004:97). Constructionist approaches deal with shared second language learning development by addressing communicative needs. According to Mitchell and Myles (2004), processing approaches have been subdivided into two types. The first is focused on information processing by investigating two memory stores (short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)). The second type is declarative and procedural, and is focused on how second language is mechanised and restructured through repeated activation. McLaughlin’s information-processing model (1987, cited in Mitchell & Myles, 2004:100) is focused on information processing which could be either controlled or automatic. Controlled processing means that information which is temporarily activated in the memory requires more controlled attention. However, it might be restricted to short-term memory. In مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 282 contrast, the processing can become automatic when language which is first produced by controlled processing is subjected to repeat activation and sequencing. On the other hand, Anderson (1983; 1985, cited in Mitchell & Myles, 2004:103) adopts the other type of processing approach, which takes place in three stages. The first is the cognitive stage, which can describe a procedure that has already been learned; secondly, the associative stage indicates how learners can perform tasks in a straightforward manner, and thirdly, the autonomous stage means that learners can attempt to perform skills rapidly and automatically. Some researchers, however, argue that declarative knowledge can be divided into two categories, which comprise conscious and unconscious components. Loewen and Reinders (2011) point out that such constructionist approaches follow the notion of connectionism theory, which argues that learners exposed to linguistic features can produce them in situational contexts. Subsequently, learners can develop powerful networks which may connect these linguistic elements together and eventually, these elements will in turn activate the other features which are in the learner’s mind. Although this perspective seems to have positive points, the connective learning model may produce sophisticated syntactic structures which require extra research or investigation (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). It may be argued that cognitive theory is perhaps focused on individuals’ development rather than their involvement in social situations, especially with teachers. There are other theorists, however, who attempt to describe the role of learners from socio-cultural perspectives. Acquisition and learning First of all, a distinction must be made in order to understand the difference between second language acquisition and second language learning. According to Ellis (1985), acquisition means that L2 learners pick up language unconsciously when they are exposed to it, whereas learning means the L2 learners study the language consciously. Interaction and socio-cultural theory Building on the notion of engaging learners in a social environment, the interaction hypothesis believes that L2 learners can acquire language through their interaction in different social situations. According to Ellis (1985:133), “foreigner talk is likely to be influenced by a whole host of variables such as the topic of conversation, the age of participants...., and, in particular, the proficiency of the learners”. Moreover, Long (1983, cited in Lightbown & Spada, 2006:43) argues that “modified interaction is the necessary mechanism for making language comprehensible. That is, what learners need is not necessarily simplification of the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other speakers”. The most influential theory مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 283 related to this idea is Vygotsky’s concept, which assumes that cognitive perspectives appear as a consequence of social interaction. This is confirmed by Cook (2008), who points out Vygotsky’s suggestion that children have the aptitude to switch the process from external social use of language to internal mental use. Furthermore, Vygotsky (cited in Jordan et al., 2008:61) asserts that the role of teachers in supporting learners is crucial; he refers to the zone of proximal development (ZPD), in which teachers can involve learners in intellectual development so that the learners’ thinking can be advanced. Additionally, using the idea of scaffolding, adults are required to support children by utilising language which mediates between them and the world, in order to enable them to solve problems (Bruner, 1983; 1990, cited in Cameron, 2001:8). Characteristics of L2 learners There is no doubt that certain individual factors may affect the success of SLA learners, such as age, attitude, aptitude, intelligence and motivation, yet according to Cook (2008:135), such success “seems to be an element that can only be attributed to the individual; some people can, others cannot.” For instance, motivation and attitude are associated with each other, but researchers cannot confirm whether positive motivation and attitude lead to beneficial language learning (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Attitude is defined as “the persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal” (Gardner & Lambert, 1972, cited in Ellis, 1985:117), and Cook (2008) states that a long-stable attitude can cause motivation in L2 learners’ minds which can be categorised into two types: integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. In addition, age can affect L2 learners when they learn a language. Lightbown and Spada (2006) claim that children who are from immigrant families have the ability to communicate in their new society the same as native speakers, with high levels of mastery of spoken language compared to their parents, whose mastery is probably poor. Although children cannot be compared with older learners in terms of their grasp of language complexity, the age of the learner can greatly affect the rate and achievement of SLA (Ellis, 1985). In terms of intelligence, Mitchell and Myles (2004) point out that it is evident that L2 learners who are deemed intelligent by formal measurement can perform successfully in formal classroom settings. However, Harmer (2001) asserts that the aptitudes of learners are different in learning languages, since some can improve rapidly while others cannot. This can be measured by testing, though such tests have been criticised by researchers, since they cannot distinguish between the most and least intelligent learners. As well as those mentioned above, there are probably other factors which can affect second language learners when they are learning the second language. Some of the factors will be discussed further in the analysis section of the case study. مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 284 Methodology This section will describe the two subjects involved in the case study, as well as the influences of social context on both of them, by drawing on different factors and individual differences. First of all, data was collected by observing and interviewing the two subjects of the study. The aim of this was to provide evidence about the subjects’ communicative competence, in order to see if they seized opportunities to communicate with native speakers or not. The second method of data collection was a written test, in which grammatical accuracy could be measured. This data will be evaluated in relation to theories and hypotheses in the analysis section. Based on the data, it seems that there are indeed several factors which may affect learners in learning a second language, including age, personality and motivation. The subjects of the case study talked about different topics and areas such as their learning background, their purposes in coming to the UK and whether they liked the environment or community where they lived. Both the subjects of the case study are Libyan. Their ages are different but are within the early forties, and both are studying at British universities. Ahmed is my relative and Huda is my sister. Huda had reached the higher pre-intermediate level of English, while Ahmed was at intermediate level. Both are currently studying PhDs in different fields. The period of acquiring English language was different for the two learners. Ahmed emigrated to live in the UK with his family when he was five years old, and was resident there for a long time before going back to his country to work in an international company. The government then offered him a scholarship to study abroad. Huda, on the other hand, came to the UK in 2008 to study an MA in Computer Science, and has stayed to continue studying a PhD in the same field at the same university. With regard to their learning background, Ahmed and Huda have had different experiences of exposure to the English language, since Ahmed continues to study English in the UK within other subjects which are instructed in English, whereas Huda has not had much exposure to the English language because she only studied English when she was at secondary school, and then the teaching policy changed and her government prevented the teaching of English in schools for a period of time. Despite their different experiences, both have found that their English has improved compared with when they were in their home country. In terms of the data collection, they were eager to participate and provide information. The data that was collected, through both conversation and the written test, comprised some accurate and some inaccurate language produced by both students. Some of the errors could be analysed as the consequences of different influences, and they varied between lexical and grammatical errors. مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 285 Analysis This section identifies the errors made by the two subjects and concentrates on analysis of specific areas by drawing on variation theory to illuminate the intrinsic detail of the learners’ errors. It also considers the significance of the social context in which learners acquire a second language. It appears that some second language learners can be more successful in learning language than others. This could occur due to the age factor. Gas and Selinker (2013) claim that children can be more successful than adults in learning language. This can be seen in an example from Ahmed when he had been asked about his language improvement: “I acquired a good range of vocabulary through my communication”. In comparison with Huda’s example, “Uh...I am good now”, it is obvious that the period of time of exposure to English when Ahmed was a child of five years had played a crucial role in his ability to store and acquire the English language, since he spoke fluently utilising a reasonable range of vocabulary. In contrast, Huda was hesitant and general in her speech, as she only started learning English at the age of 15 and for a short time. Building on this finding, it is argued that the favourable age to acquire a language is in the first ten years of life (Penfield and Roberts, 1959, cited in Ellis, 1985:107). Another point, highlighted by Ellis (1985), is that the level of success is affected by the number of years of exposure as well as the starting age. This can be seen in Ahmed’s speech, since he appeared to be successful in his interaction and fluency in comparison with his grammatical accuracy. While Ahmed had had a fulfilling opportunity to acquire the English language which lasted for a long period of time, Huda had acquired the language within a limited period and she still has only the same level of experience even in the UK. Nevertheless, it is probably not age alone which can influence L2 learners. Rather, it is the way in which this combines with other factors that could play a part in second language learning. With regard to other research, the critical period hypothesis assumes that learners cannot obtain a high level of language proficiency within a specific age range. Lenneberg (1967, cited in Hummel, 2014:172) suggests that the change in this period might be as a consequence of a lateralisation process which is restricted to the right or the left hemisphere of the brain, while most learners appear to have the language function in the left hemisphere of the brain. This can be correlated to a period of two years and probably ends around the age of adolescence. It can be said that motivation also plays an essential role in second language learning. However, motivation can vary for numerous reasons, depending on learners’ goals. It was noticed that the motivation for learning language varied between Ahmed and Huda. The reason is perhaps that Ahmed is enthusiastic about communication with British people, as well as being addicted to the British culture and community, whereas Huda’s goal is to achieve a high education certificate so that she can obtain a satisfactory job when she goes back to her country. With regard to motivation types, Huda has an instrumental motivation (extrinsic) for مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 286 learning the English language while Ahmed is different, as he has an integrative motivation (intrinsic) for learning the second language. However, despite the fact that Ahmed speaks with a high level of native-like fluency, Huda can have reasonable accuracy in terms of her grammatical competence. Therefore, Huda could be said to have a higher level of achievement in learning the second language compared with Ahmed, as her goal for language learning is more functional. In other words, Huda is more likely to intensify her efforts to reach her goals. To some extent, this is true; it is supported by Dornyei (1990, cited in Cook, 2008:138) who conducted a test of motivation in Hungary in a study examining English learners in a European environment, and proved that future careers are influential in providing learners with instrumental motivation. In support of this, Huda was almost accurate in the grammatical written test, whereas Ahmed was quite inaccurate in his grammatical competence, and unable to construct according to complicated grammar rules such as present perfect continuous, or perhaps was unaware of the correct usage. For example, Huda’s sentence “I have been studying an English language for three years”, is more accurate than Ahmed’s, “I have studying an English language for long time”. This belief about motivation is also supported by Carrió-Pastor and Mestre (2014), who argue that both instrumental and integrative motivation are vital, however recent research places more emphasis on the success of instrumental motivation. However, this cannot be said to be always true, since Ahmed, who has integrative motivation, was most interested in communicating with native speakers when the opportunity came. He also tends to use and speak the English language even with his Libyan groups, while Huda, who has instrumental motivation, cannot speak very well and she is often hesitant, stressful and confused when she attempts to speak the L2. The reason may possibly be that she is concerned about grammatical accuracy, and she may be anxious about the language structure before she utters; this could be attributable to psychological factors such as culture shock or social distance. For instance, in Huda’s conversation, utterances like “Learning English important” and “What does mean?” show Huda omitting an auxiliary verb ‘is’ and simplifying the question without using a ‘subject’ in her speech. In support of this analysis, evidence is presented from the acculturation model: “According to the precepts of this model, acculturation (the assimilation of the cultural traits of another group) is the causal variable of SLA. That is, if learners acculturate, they will learn; if learners do not acculturate, they will not learn. Thus, acculturation initiates a chain reaction, including contact in the middle and acquisition as its outcome” (Gas & Selinker, 2013: 464). To put it more simply, Huda probably does not socialise with native speakers, or perhaps does not have a desire to communicate with the target language group. مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 287 Another factor which could affect second language learning is personality, which may influence conversational skills or even listening and writing skills. It has been found that self-esteem can contribute to the success of second language learning. As an example from the case study, Ahmed probably has high self-esteem about learning in an interactive and efficient way, especially in British society. In other words, Ahmed is willing to communicate and feels confident about himself, and this has perhaps resulted in helping him to be a competent learner, particularly in terms of conversational skill. This is supported by White (1959, cited in Oxford & Ehrman, 1993:194), who defines it as “a self-judgment of worth or value based on feelings of ‘efficacy’, a sense of interacting effectively with one's own environment”. In contrast, Huda may be prone to anxiety when speaking, since she is introvert as a person and does not enjoy interacting with native speakers or ‘performing’ in front of others. Moreover, she sometimes worries about her language structure while she is speaking, especially in front of native speakers. The most compelling evidence of this is presented by Macintyre (1995:96), who explains that “Anxious students are focused on both the task at hand and their reactions to it...[they] therefore will not learn as quickly as relaxed students”. This is further supported by Oxford and Ehrman (1993:193), who argue that “The ‘bad’ kind of anxiety is known as debilitating anxiety because it harms L2 learners' performance in many ways, both indirectly through worry and self-doubt, and directly by reducing participation and creating overt avoidance of the language”. However, this may not necessarily be true, since anxiety can also affect L2 learners positively. For example, Huda could have positive anxiety, particularly when she has an exam. Because of her anxiety, she usually exerts extra effort before the time of the exam in order to perform successfully. This may perhaps have supported her in forming some basic grammatical structures efficiently in the written test. This is supported by Macintyre (1995:92), who argues that “To the extent that a given task is relatively simple, anxiety seems to have little negative effect and may actually improve performance through increased effort”. Some errors might be attributable to other cognitive and social factors. In fact, both learners produced errors in both the spoken and written tests, and some of these could be as a consequence of first language influences. As an illustration, both students might transfer rules and expressions negatively or even positively from their first language to the second language, as illustrated in previous sections. For instance, in Huda’s statement “I found problems in English language that I cannot understand them”, she has probably transferred the rule of the relative clause from the Arabic language to the English language when she inserted the pronoun ‘them’, which is in effect a difference between the two languages. In the case of Ahmed, possibly because of the similarity between the Arabic and English language rule relating to the passive voice, Ahmed applied this rule successfully in the written test. مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 288 Another factor which could be related to the developmental learning process as well as to the L1 is overgeneralisation. It has been claimed that L2 learners may over-apply and internalize rules of the target language that are not appropriate or even justified. In brief, L2 learners may attempt to develop their language by adding their own rules based on the amount of knowledge of the target language they have already acquired (Hummel, 2014). To demonstrate, Huda overgeneralised the rule of past simple when she applied the -ed rule, and instead of the irregular verb ‘wrote’, used “I writted my report last week ”. Furthermore, both Huda and Ahmed sometimes produced fixed expressions in their speaking that they had acquired before. However, neither of them seemed to be aware of the grammatical morphemes to these expressions. The reason for this is probably that they may have heard these words in context and merely been able to comprehend the meaning without necessarily paying attention to the correct form. In Huda’s example “Could you do me a favour?” and Ahmed’s “I'm afraid that's never come into my mind”, Huda may not be aware of the use of ‘could’, and whether a base form is needed after it or not, and Ahmed probably does not recognise the present perfect form in that expression. Gradually, both of them can come to realise the grammatical use of such formulaic expressions through guided instruction and experience, and begin to process this information automatically. This supports what is proposed by both cognitive theory and the i+1 comprehensible input hypothesis mentioned above. It was also noticed that Huda used alternative expressions in conversation with interlocutors so that her speech could be comprehensible for them. This proves what is claimed by the interaction hypothesis and ZPD concept referred to above, since she negotiated meaning by modifying words to carry on her conversation with support from other speakers. In the following example, perhaps because of Huda’s personality as mentioned in the previous section, the interlocutor supports Huda when she speaks by asking her kindly “What do you mean by this?”, “Do you mean X or Y?”, or gives her time to respond to a question or uses gestures. Huda: What is your study? NS: Pardon, what do you mean? Huda: Uhuh...I mean what do you do at university? NS: Do you mean my subject or my field? Huda: Oh, yes...field With reference to social interaction, it was observed that Huda and Ahmed used their own strategies to help others to understand their words. Possibly because of the difficulty of some features of L2, both learners مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 289 restated their own speech to approximate the meaning of those words, and sometimes talked round the word in an attempt to convey their message to native speakers. In essence, Huda used ‘plane’ for ‘airport’ and “I need to see a doctor” for “I have an appointment”. Also, Ahmed seemed to be more likely to use mime when there were complicated words that he could not remember. Tarone (1980) states that foreigner talk might involve negotiating clarifications when communicating in order to reach the intended meaning; this may involve using strategies such as paraphrasing, circumlocution or mime. Furthermore, “Communication strategies are most clearly defined…as ‘mutual attempts of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where the requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared’” (Tarone, 1980:420). It appeared that both learners used standard and non-standard English language in their conversations. Exemplifying this, both learners utilised standard language when speaking to their teachers or to staff at the university, but when at home, they used non-standard English. For example Huda, when speaking to her teacher, would say “May I help you?” while at home she used expressions such as “Feel free to do anything”. In short, their culture and pidgin language might affect their use of standard English when communicating, since this style of speech does not exist as an English norm. In terms of lingua franca and the socio-cultural perspective, this could occur under the effect of other people’s language. The same pattern applied to Ahmed, as he communicated with professional people in a different style from the language he used with family, friends or even in the street. With regard to English variations, pidgin language and cultural identity, it was found that Huda and Ahmed spoke English in their own accent, which may have had a negative effect on their grammar. The reason for this may perhaps be that each of them was exposed to English in different ways at their respective schools. For instance, Ahmed said “When I was at British schools, I concentrated on speaking rather than on grammar…when I came back to my country, my teachers focus widely on grammar but I still have problems with it”. In comparison, Huda said “The Libyan schools stress more on grammar but not on speaking skill”. To conclude, the two subjects in the case study had experienced different styles of learning background. Building on the concept of a lingua franca, Ahmed is probably a successful communicator in terms of conversational skill, regardless of his weaknesses in language structure, whereas Huda is a successful writer in terms of grammar, despite her weaknesses in speaking. These differences reflect the range of factors and influences involved in the SLA process. Conclusion The purpose of this case study has been to concentrate on how learners learn a second language. However, because of the small scale of this research, it is difficult to make any assumptions. Despite this limitation, مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 290 the study has compared the SLA processes of two learners from different perspectives. With regard to English as a world language, it has been seen that English has grown rapidly among world languages, both as a foreign and as a second language. Furthermore, in terms of English as a lingua franca, it has become the language of business and technology and continues to spread among non-native countries, being taught at increasingly early stages. Experts argue that English has begun to be spoken by many non-native speakers who mix their local languages into the English language elements. Consequently, it has been estimated that different types of English will be spoken, one type at school or work, and one at home. Others claim that the language can be taught by encouraging local versions in English language classes. Whilst some native speakers might be unsatisfied by such alterations, at the same time, they may perhaps need to adapt to them, since the globalisation of English has become a fact of life. It has been predicted that speakers of the English language will reach two billion by 2050. Therefore, the demand for native English speakers will expand for some time in the future. With reference to second language theories, it could be said that cognitive factors and socio-cultural context both play an essential part in second language learning, as well as Krashen’s concept of comprehensible input which could help to explain the SLA process of learners. Furthermore, it was clear that the two learners in the case study had been influenced by different factors and characteristics, and had utilised varying strategies in learning the English language. Because of the ongoing changes to the English language, TESOL teachers and trainers must continue to research and seek answers to questions which could be raised by schools, governments and industry regarding such issues. References - Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. - Carrió-Pastor, L.M, & Mestre, E.M. (2014). Motivation in second language acquisition. Procedia, Social and Behavioral sciences, 116(1877), 240-244. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.201 - Cook, V. (2008). Second language learning and language teaching. (4th ed.). London & New York: Routledge. - Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford: OUP. - Ellis, R. (2005). Analysing learner language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. - Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: Introductory course. (2nd ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum. - Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (2013). Second language acquisition: an introductory course. (4th ed.). London: Routledge. - Gnutzmann, C. & Intemann, F. (Eds.). (2005). The globalisation of English and the English language classroom. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. - Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English? London: British Council. - Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching. (3rd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. مجلة كلية اآلداب-جامعة بنغازي 1781 – 5252 : للنسخة اإللكترونيةISSN __________________________________________________________________________ العدد 54 أغسطس 291 - Hummel, K.M. (2013). Introducing second language acquisition: Perspectives and practices.Retrieved from http://www.eblib.com - Jordan, A., Carlile, O., & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to learning: a guide for teachers. Maidenhead: Open University Press. - Lightbown, P. & Spada, N.M. (2006). How languages are learned. (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. - Loewen, S. & Reinders, H. (2011). Key concepts in second language acquisition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. - MacIntyre, P.D. (1995). How does anxiety affect second language learning? A reply to Sparks and Ganschow. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 90-99. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/329395 - Mitchell, R. & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories. (2nd ed.). London: Hodder Arnold. - Oxford, R.L. & Ehrman, M. (1992). Second language research on individual difference Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 188-205. doi:10.1017/S0267190500002464 - Robinson, P. (2001). Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Tarone, E. (1980). Communication strategies, foreigner talk, and repair in interlanguage. Language Learning, 30, 417–428. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1980.tb00326.x - Towell, R. & Hawkins, R. (1994). Approaches to second language acquisition. Bristol:Longdunn Press. - Wei, X. (2008). Implication of Il fossilization in second language acquisition. English Language Teaching, 1(1),127-131. Retrieved from www.ccsenet.org/journal/ index.php/elt/article/view/523/504
Second Language Acquisition: A Case Study (1)
Koutsompou Violetta-Irene
(BA, MA, DipCounsPsy, MSc)
1(English and Psychology
Department, New York College, Athens Greece)
Abstract: The case study presented here, deals with the
subject of second language acquisition making at the same time an effort to
show as much as possible how L1 was acquired and the ways L1
affected L2, through the
process of examining a Greek girl who has been exposed to the English language
from the age of eight. Furthermore, I had the chance to analyze the method used
by the frontistirio teachers and in what ways this method helps or negatively
influences children regarding their performance in the four basic skills. We
will evaluate the evidence acquired by the girl by studying briefly the basic
theories provided by important figures in the field of L2. Finally, I will also include my personal
suggestions and the improvement of the child’s abilities and I will state my
opinion clearly.
Keywords: case study,
children, Greece, second language acquisition, skills.
- Introduction
According to the findings of the case
study examined here, concerning issues such as age, social and family
background, personal characteristics, age, sex, motivation, environment,
parental education, and financial situation, we will have the chance to
understand how the above factors played either a negative or a positive role in
acquiring L2.
- Difference
Between L1 And L2
The basic
difference between L1 and L2 is that the former is
remarkable for the speed with which it takes place (usually during infancy).
The important element is that by the age of five the child has acquired a great
part of the basics of the language while acquiring L2 requires e set
of paragons and methods to develop the proficiency of the language. L2
refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it
naturally in communicative situations(1).
- Acquisition
And Learning
Some researchers distinguish between
acquisition and learning. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process of
“picking up” a language through exposure; on the other hand, learning is
related to the conscious process of studying it(2).
What
Is A Case Study?
A case study is an empirical inquiry
that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context; one
not clearly evident and in which multiple sources of evidence are used(3). The most common type of CS [case
study] involves the detailed description and analysis of an individual subject,
from whom observations, interviews, and (family) histories provide the database(4).
Historical
Review
In applied linguistics, the case study
has been employed principally as a tool to trace the language development of
the first and second language learners(5).
Thus, we should take a look to previous important case studies concerning
language acquisition. A notable case is that of Genie, a 13-year-old who had
spent most of her life tied to a chair locked in a small room. Her father was
intolerant of any kind of noise and had beaten Genie whenever she made a noise.
Moreover, there had been no radio or television and the child’s only human
contact was forbidden to spend more than a few minutes with her, only long
enough to feed her. Genie had spent her whole life in a state of physical,
sensory and psychological deprivation. As a conclusion, Genie was unable to use
language, but when she was brought into care she began to respond, trying to
imitate sounds and communicate. Her syntax remained simple. This case provides
some evidence against the notion that language cannot be acquired after the
critical period (up until puberty); it can be acquired but not fully and not in
a proficient level(6).
- Research
Method Used
The oral interview has been widely used
as a research tool especially in psychology and applied linguistics. It has
been used by second language acquisition researchers seeking data on stages and
processes of acquisition(7).
Obviously, the research method I used is the one of interview, both of the
child and his parents. The main purpose of interviewing both sides is that of
having more accurate findings, being more objective and also becoming more
familiar with the general idea about language that exists in the family (see
Appendix p.1).N Another method I used is tape recording because the child examined
is not affected negatively by the fact that everything we talk about is
recorded. She is not a shy child. The interview lasted almost 2 hours and
naturally took place at the girl’s house.
I would like to mention here that the discussion with the parents was
held in Greek, since neither of them speaks English. The conversation with the
girl was held in both languages.
- Family And
Social Background
Firstly, I should introduce the girl.
Her name is “Ioanna L.”, she is fourteen years old and she lives in an area
that is close to Athens. Her family is a typical middle class Greek family. She
has two sisters and an older brother who lives abroad. From what I have
experienced, being a long time acquaintance of the family due to the fact that
we were neighbors, I could say that there are exceptionally strong love bonds
between the mother and the children. The father is more distant towards his
children, which by no means indicates he doesn’t care about them. However, he
expresses his love in his own unique way. Both parents have an adequate
educational background; they have finished high school and more specifically
the father is a graduate of an Institution of Electronics and Engineers.
Furthermore, they both work. Their financial situation is good enough to pay for
four to six hours of private lessons per week.
- Personal
Characteristics
“Ioanna L.” is a young teenage girl; she
is a very good student, a hyperactive child, adorable and sweet. She has a very
communicative personality and generally I can say that she is very extrovert.
She likes to attend conversations between older people in order to learn more
things. She is mature enough to understand basic issues and discuss about them.
Issues like her future studies, since her dream is to become a primary school teacher.
She is not cooperative in learning foreign languages, specifically English,
even though she understands that it is required to have knowledge in English
because it is an international language used everywhere. She didn’t start
English because she wanted to, but in order to please her parents, who had this
desire. She isn’t really motivated to learn English, so here I could say that
her English teacher will face a difficulty.
First Language Acquisition
“Ioanna L.”, based on her mother’s
words, started to understand and react to language at the age of one. She
confused baby-talk words (caretaker speech) with the correct ones. For example,
in the village a lot of mothers use the phoneme “ai” for the word
“water”, so the child muddles up “ai” and “water”. When the baby says “ai” it
means that he/she wants to drink water. Furthermore, she speaks according to
the existing dialect and she has the accent used in this particular
geographical area.
Second Language Acquisition
“Ioanna L.”, just like the majority of
Greek children, went to a frontistirio to learn English. The process of
learning the second language began at the age of eight. It is true that it
wasn’t difficult for her to adapt to the system of the frontistirio. As
expected in the L2 she produced overgeneralizations as a result of
the L1. She transferred Greek
expressions into English and she still does that; obviously, this way isn’t
effective for L2 communication (negative transfer). I should mention
that “Ioanna L.” didn’t have any previous experience with English and that
because her parents wanted her first to learn Greek (mother language) perfectly
or at least in a very good level. “Ioanna L.” spends three hours every week to
the frontistirio doing mainly exercises related to grammar (grammar –
translation method) and writing.
Speaking
The ability to speak presupposes not
only a firm knowledge of language features (grammar) but also the ability to
process information and language “on the spot”(8). The whole purpose of referring to the above
statement is because “Ioanna L.” cannot speak English spontaneously and
generally she cannot communicate easily with a native speaker of English due to
the fact that the process she follows is to think in Greek and translate in
English. From that I can conclude that the speaking section is not included in
the program or method of the frontistirio.
Listening
Another important skill for the learner,
especially the non-native speaker of the language, is the listening skill. It
is especially important since it provides the perfect opportunity to listen to
voices other than the teacher’s, enables students to acquire good habits as a
result of the spoken English they absorb, and helps to improve their own
vocabulary and pronunciation(9).From
what I saw, “Ioanna L.” understands the conversations she hears; she catches
the general meaning even if she doesn’t know many words or expressions from the
discussion.
Reading
“Ioanna L.” couldn’t read extensive
passages at the beginning, but now she is able to read whole texts and I
believe she can read books easily, since she loves reading. Sometimes she gets
stuck on words or phrases without having a basic meaning for the text. To get
maximum benefit from their reading students need to be involved in both
extensive and intensive reading. One of the fundamental conditions of a
successful extensive reading program is that students should be reading
material they can understand. The intensive reading makes learners realize that
they shouldn’t feel desperate if they don’t understand every single word in a
text. It seems contradictory to insist that students “read for meaning” while
simultaneously discouraging them from trying to understand the text at a deeper
level than merely gist(10).
Writing
Another skill of great importance is
writing which is strongly related to speaking. They both belong to
communication and combining these two skills we can say that a learner is
capable of interacting with other speakers or generally people through
discussions or personal letters and written assignments.
Oral Communication Written
Communication
Utterance text
Speaker ßà Listener Writer ßà Reader
Written
text has a number of conventions which separate it from speaking. Apart from
differences in grammar and vocabulary, there are issues of letter, word and
text formation, manifested by handwriting, spelling, layout and punctuation(11). In this specific case, “Ioanna L.”
doesn’t have a serious handwriting problem (the reader can easily understand
her writing) and her spelling is absolutely correct; there is a slight problem
with punctuation. She knows how to organize a text and she is able to write
letters with fluency.
- Recommendations-Personal
Opinion
After the above findings about “Ioanna
L.”’s skills, I will try to make recommendations concerning her progress; it’s
not difficult to realize that the only serious problem she faces is in the
speaking section but she can be improved through discussions in the classroom
(communicative approach) and by the method of drilling (audio lingual method).
I believe that with a lot of practice she will manage to improve herself,
especially in this skill since it is the problematic one. As far as the other
three basic skills, I honestly think that she is improving daily but it would
be helpful for her to watch movies without subtitles or subtitles in the
English language, so she can see words, phrases and their spelling. Another
activity is to start reading books in English and as a result she will practice
English and learn new words, so she can use them in either speaking or writing.
- Conclusion
As a conclusion, I would like to express
my feeling of satisfaction and personal fulfillment due to the great experience
I had doing this research concerning second language acquisition. I could have
written more about the child examined but this requires a lot of analysis
which, unfortunately, there is no opportunity to conduct. It was very useful
for me to observe an individual in an issue of great concern in the field of
language. I hope the above issues presented in this case study have been
adequately explained.
References
[1].
Ellis, Rod. The Study of Second
Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press, 2003.
[2].
Harmer, Jeremy. The Practice of
English Language Teaching, Longman editions. England, 2001
[3].
Nunan, David. Research Methods in
Language Learning. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
[4].
Wade, Carole & Tavris, Carol.
Psychology, Pearson Education, New Jersey, 2003: 7th edition.
[5].
Yule, George. The Study of
Language. Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 2004.
Ms Koutsompou Violetta-Irene was born and raised in Polidrosos, a village at the outskirts of Mountain Parnassos, in Greece. She holds a BA in English and Psychology (2007) from the State University of New York, USA, a Masters degree in English and Comparative Literature (2009) from the University of Indianapolis, USA, an accredited Certificate in TEFL from the Hellenic American Union (2007) and a Diploma in Counseling Psychology (2013) from City Unity College, Athens, Greece, an MSc in Psychology from the University of East London, UK (2014) . She conducted research concerning postnatal depression and presented it to the Psychology Conference of City Unity College, which awarded her a prize of excellence. Her areas of interest and concentration are psychology of child development, children’s literature and its impact on the cognitive development, depression, grief and loss, postnatal depression, anxiety and depression, mood disorders in children and adults, second language acquisition, the use of literature in the language classroom and its benefits, postmodern literature, women’s psychology and writings, book editing and writing. She has conducted research concerning second language acquisition and the young learners as well as grief, counseling and the grieving process in all aspects of life; she has participated as a co-author in a forthcoming book on grief and loss. She has presented her work in many Conferences in Greece and abroad. Ms Koutsompou worked in private language institutions since 2005; she was interested and worked with children with special learning difficulties such as dyslexia, as well as with children with behavioral problems in the language classroom.
Some of her Publications: Koutsompou
Violetta-Irene, “Young Learners: How advantageous is the early start?” IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social
Science (IOSR-JHSS) Vol. 15, Issue 5 (Sep. - Oct. 2013), pp 27-37
Kotsopoulou Anastasia and Koutsompou
Violetta-Irene, “The Grieving Process during the Economic Crisis in
Greece”, Journal of Economics, Business
and Management vol. 2, no. 4, pp.313-317, 2014.
Koutsompou
Violetta-Irene, “Grief and the Counseling Process”, IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social
Science (IOSR-JHSS)
Volume 18, Issue 1 (Nov. - Dec. 2013), pp. 32-39
Koutsompou
Violetta-Irene, "The Use of Literature in the Language Classroom:
Methods and Aims," International
Journal of Information and Education Technology vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 74-79, 2015.
.
(1) Yule, The Study of Language, pp. 175-191
(2) Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition, pp.
14-15
(3) Nunan, Research Methods in Language Learning pp.76-78
(4) Nunan, Research Methods in Language Learning, pp.
76-78
(5) Nunan, Research Methods in Language Learning, pp.
76-78
(6) Yule, The Study of Language, p. 171
(7) Nunan, Research Methods in Language Learning, p. 149
(8) Harmer, The Practice of ELT, p. 270
(9) Harmer, The Practice of ELT, p. 228
(10) Harmer, The Practice of ELT, p. 214
(11) Harmer, The Study of ELT, pp. 255-258